The common beech is widespread in western, central and southern Europe, but absent in the northern and eastern parts with severe winters. In the mountains, it occurs even at elevations above 1000 metres. It is a shade-tolerant and vigorous tree that frequently grows in pure stands, but also occurs in mixed stands together with the spruce and fir, and, at lower altitudes, with the oak, hornbeam, and other broad-leaved trees. It attains a height of 30 to 40 metres and develops a long, smooth, silver-grey trunk with a high broad crown. The pointed buds are elongate, measuring 15 to 20 mm in length, and stand away from the twig.

It attains heights of 20 to 25 metres and develops a slim bole topped with a crown of slender, pendent branches. It has a fairly short life span, attaining an age of 100 to 200 years. The twigs are covered with waxy warts. The bark is white and smooth, becoming blackish and fissured at the base. The flowers appear in April, and the fruits mature in June, being gradually dispersed great distances by the wind until the onset of winter. This, plus the fact that the tree grows well even on poor soils, makes it an important colonist of forest clearings, pastures and fallow land. The silver birch is a light-demanding species and stands up well to both frost and the sun’s heat. The white trunk and fresh green of its spring foliage make it an ornamental element in the landscape.

The beech is a slow- growing tree whose fallen leaves enrich the soil and in certain areas it is marked by abundant natural propagation by seed. The hard wood is used to make furniture, parquet flooring, sleepers and cellulose. Its ornamental forms are often planted in parks.

The Spanish chestnut is indigenous to southern Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. As early as Roman times, however, it was introduced into more northerly regions, and later it was cultivated in monastery gardens by monks. Today, centuries old specimSns may be found in Great Britain and the whole of western and central Europe. The Spanish chestnut is often a large tree attaining a height of up to 30 metres with a trunk more than two metres in diameter. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are ornamental.

The flowers of both sexes arc borne in 10 to 20-centimetre-long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. They appear in late June Julyand, by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny burs bearing brownish nuts that are shed during October.

The common alder is marked by the vigorous production of stump sprouts and is often grown for coppicing. The roots have small nodules with nitrogen-fixing bacteria which thereby enrich the soil. The common alder is a fairly light- demanding, fast-growing tree. The yellowish-red wood is used for the foundations of bridges, for plywood and for matches.